Eight Dollar Blog

I started to realize that something important was about to happen. This was the first time in years that I had actually taken the time to do nothing but reflect on the things I was doing and the thoughts that I was thinking. It was all so strange and yet so intelligent. After all, how could I ever hope to improve myself and my life if I hadn’t even taken the time to figure out what I was supposed to improve?”

“Where do I start?” I asked.
“Start with what you did this morning and progress through your day. Just hit a few of the highlights, we still have a fair amount of ground to cover and I want to get back to Yogi Raman’s fable in a few minutes.”

“Fine. I woke up at six-thirty to the sound of my electric rooster,” I joked.
“Get serious and keep going,” Julian replied firmly.
“Okay. Then I showered and shaved, gobbled down a waffle and rushed off to work.”

“And what about your family?”
“They were all asleep. Anyway, once I got to the office, I noticed that my seven-thirty appointment had been waiting there since seven, and boy, was he furious!”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

Collecting samples of private speech is facilitated by the fact that it is overtly vocalized and therefore recordable. Private speech studies have thus usually relied on video and audio recordings and the use of such technology as video cameras and portable or wireless individual microphones. Audio and video recordings of private speech data are typically turned into written transcriptions that can be subsequently
analyzed. Using microphones and video cameras, however, involves some technical difficulties that need to be taken into account. The first is that the equipment must be sensitive or positioned close enough to the speaker’s mouth to record very low volume utterances (see Ohta, 2001, p. 25). The second is that mikes and cameras introduce an element of artificiality that might affect the speaker’s degree of self-consciousness. To avoid some of these effects, some researchers have resorted to taking quick notes of the private speech they overhear (Berk & Garvin,1984; Kronk, 1994; Winsler et al., 2000). This alternative has two drawbacks: (a) Some low volume utterances may be out of ears’ reach, and (b) no permanent records of the utterances are produced that could be played repeatedly for analysis.

Whereas the majority of private speech studies have dealt with the oral modality of private speech, a few studies have looked at its written form, alternatively referred to as private writing (DiCamilla & Lantolf, 1995; Roebuck, 1998, 2000), introspective writing (Jensen, 1989), or inner speech writing(John-Steiner, 1985a; 1992). As with
the studies of oral private speech, research on the written modality views this type of self-oriented discourse as externalized inner speech in the face of challenging cognitive tasks or as a vehicle for self-communication. There are differences among the terms used to refer to this modality, though. As DiCamilla and Lantolf (1995) point out, inner speech cannot be literally “written down” (p. 351). Therefore, their preferred term private writing reflects the fact that only “portions of one’s inner dialogue with the self (p. 351) are evidenced in the written mode. Samples of private writing have been obtained from novice LI writers’ compositions (DiCamilla & Lantolf, 1995) and the written recall protocols of L2 learners (Roebuck, 1998, 2000). The emphasis in these studies is on the linguistic properties of private writing, such as modality and reference. Private writing as the externalization of inner speech has also been investigated through observation of jottings addressed to the self. Pomper (1990)
analyzed scribblings written by students on the margins of books to support her hypothesis that marginal notes usually reveal typical inner speech features

The term inner speech writing, preferred by John-Steiner (1985a, 1992), responds to the telegraphic and regulatory features of writing for the self. John-Steiner found evidence of inner speech writing in the notebooks of creative thinkers, expert writers’ journals, and scientists’ laboratory records. This written mode usually consists of
cryptic, highly condensed notes addressed to the self, jotted down quickly to anchor thoughts that might later be given greater attention or serve as the basis from which more expanded and elaborated text is produced. Written samples of inner speech are
not just found in the writings of experienced thinkers. A quickly written grocery shopping list is also a highly condensed reflection of inner thought acting as an effective externalized mnemonic device (John-Steiner, 1992, p. 293).

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“I think I might have contracted that one in the past,” I said in full knowledge of what my wise friend was saying.
“Stop making excuses and just do it!” Julian exclaimed, his voice resonating with the strength of conviction.

“Do what?”
“Take the time to think. Get into the regular habit of personal
introspection. Once Yogi Raman had listed all that he had done and
all that he had thought in one column, he would then do an assessment in another column. As he was confronted by his activities and thoughts in the written form, he asked himself whether they were positive in nature. If they were, he resolved to continue giving his precious energy to them, as they would pay huge dividends in the long run.”

“And if they were negative?”
“Then he would come up with a clear course of action to get rid of them.”
“I think an example might help me.”
“Can it be personal?” Julian asked.
“Sure, I’d love to know some of your innermost thoughts,” I suggested

“Actually, I was thinking about yours.”
We both started to giggle like a couple of kids in a schoolyard.
“Oh, alright. You always did get your way.”
“Okay let’s go through just a few of the things that you did today. Write them down on that piece of paper on the coffee table,” Julian instructed.

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

The Study of Private Speech
Following Vygotsky’s to investigate inner sp seuegchg eisntidoinrectly through its vocal, objective, manifestation, numerous researchers have dedicated themselves to what has come to be known as the study of private speech. If, as Vygotsky argued, private (egocentric) speech is similar in form and function to inner speech and different in only one aspect, outward vocalization, private speech, both among LI and L2 speakers, should provide important clues about the nature of inner speech.

The study of private speech has become an important testing ground for many of Vygotsky’s, Piaget’s, and others’ hypotheses concerning mental and linguistic development. By now, the body of work on LI and L2 private speech is quite voluminous (for an estimate of the breadth and depth of this field of study, see reviews
of the literature in Berk, 1992; McCafferty, 1994a; Ohta, 2001; Winsler, Carlton, & Barry, 2000). Although all private speech studies are potentially relevant to inner speech, the main focus of the majority of these investigations is private (audible) speech as an interesting phenomenon in itself. In other words, the researchers’ interest lies in finding out the structural features, amount and age of occurrence, and functions of private speech, without much concern for the implications that this form of vocalized, self-directed speech poses for inner speech. Only a few studies deliberately pursue connections between private and inner speech, that is, purposely look at private speech to find evidence that might illuminate the phenomenon of inner speech (Fry, 1992; Goudena, 1992; John-Steiner, 1992; McCafferty, 1998; Pomper, 1990).

Although the first wave of private speech studies dealt primarily with private speech in the L1, a growing number of researchers have turned their attention to private speech among L2 learners or in bilingual scenarios. Because of its mediating role in the construction of the linguistically-supported, social mind, private speech has become a particularly appealing topic within the sociocultural theory approach to L2 learning. A large number of studies within the L2 sociocultural field have focused on the regulatory function of private speech during solution of cognitive-verbal tasks (Appel & Lantolf, 1994; Brooks & Donato, 1994; Brooks, Donato, & McGlone, 1997;
Centeno-Cortes & Jimenez, 2004; Frawley & Lantolf, 1985; Lantolf & Frawley, 1984; Lantolf, DiCamilla,& Ahmed 1997; McCafferty, 1992,1994b, 1998). Within this line of research, private speech is conceived as externalized inner speech, which is deployed in an effort to self-regulate behavior and gain control over a task. This type of study is thus particularly relevant to inner speech as it relates to the issue of externalization. Until recently, the role of private speech in the internalization of the L2 had been little explored. A seminal investigation by Saville-Troike (1988) provided
evidence, however, that learners sometimes use audible private speech in order to learn, or internalize, the L2. Following Saville-Troike, several researchers have begun to look at the internalizing or L2 learning function of private speech (Centeno-Cortes, 2003; Lantolf & Yanez, 2003; Ohta, 2001).

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“I’m still a little fuzzy on the concept, Julian.”
“Fair enough. It was also foreign to me when I first heard it.
Boiled down to its basic form, personal reflection is nothing more
than the habit of thinking.”

“But don’t we all think? Isn’t that part of being human?”
“Well, most of us do think. The problem is that most people think just enough to survive. What I am speaking about with this ritual is thinking enough to thrive. When you read Ben Franklin’s biography you will see what I mean. Every evening, after a full day of productive work, he would retire to a silent corner of his home and reflect on his day. He would consider all of his actions and whether they were positive and constructive or whether they were of the negative sort, in need of repair. By clearly knowing what he was doing wrong in his days, he could take immediate steps to improve and advance along the path of self-mastery. The sages did the same. Every night, they would retire to the sanctuary of their huts covered by fragrant rose petals and sit in deep contemplation.
Yogi Raman would actually take a written inventory of his day.”

“What kinds of things would he write down?” I asked.
“First he would list all of his activities, from the personal care activities of his morning to his interactions with the other sages to
his forays into the forest in search of firewood and fresh food.
Interestingly, he would also write down the thoughts he had run
through his mind during that particular day.”

“Isn’t that hard to do? I can hardly remember what I thought five minutes ago let alone twelve hours ago.”
“Not if you practice this ritual daily. You see, anyone can attain the kind of results I have attained. Anyone. The real problem is that too many people suffer from that dreadful disease known as excusitus.”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

Despite its objective basis, Vygotsky’s experimental-genetic method implies making inferences on the nature of inner speech. As van der Veer and Valsiner (1991) note, this method extrapolates the properties of inner speech from those of egocentric speech, thus following an “indirect route” (p. 364). Vygotsky, nevertheless, thought it was an “excellent method” because it allowed for the investigation of inner speech “live,” that is “while its structural and functional peculiarities are being shaped” and because it was objective; in other words, it depended on audible egocentric speech,
which is “accessible to observation and measurement” (1986, p. 86). The fact that the method ultimately rests on interpretation and inference was not a drawback for Vygotsky because, in his view, such is the nature of psychological research (van der Veer & Valsiner, 1991, p. 149). If explanation is sought, scientific research has no choice but to transcend the observable. According to Vygotsky (citing Engels), “although we can never see the world through the ant’s eyes, we can reconstruct its view of the world” (van der Veer & Valsiner, 1991, p. 149).

Vygotsky (1986) made frequent references to the experiments he and his research associates conducted to determine the fate and functions of self-directed speech. Though lacking much methodological detail (in terms of data collection, procedures, and analysis of raw data) in their reporting, these experiments basically involved introducing some type of difficulty or frustration, for example, removing a color pencil while a child was drawing (see Vygotsky, 1986, pp. 29-34), or changing the circumstances surrounding the experiment, for instance, having the experimenter leave the room while the child was solving a problem (see pp. 232-234), to observe effects on the amount and quality of egocentric speech. Aside from a few short samples of speech produced during these experiments, however, Vygotsky “did not illustrate the syntax of inner speech by giving examples from protocols of egocentric speech registered in his own research” (van der Veer & Valsiner, 1991, p. 366). Instead, he chose to quote literary pieces (from Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, etc.) showing features of external (oral or written) discourse that might resemble inner speech.

Notwithstanding certain limitations, probably due more to the quality of the reporting than to its actual conception and execution (but see Wertsch’s 1985b critique of some shortcomings in its application, pp. 17-57), Vygotsky’s experimental-genetic approach to inner speech is a remarkable effort to overcome the difficulties inherent
in the study of inner speech. Though scholars before him had investigated inner and egocentric speech, no one (not even Piaget) had so ingeniously and effectively synthesized both strands of research into a coherent methodological and substantive approach to the issue of verbal thought (van der Veer & Valsiner, 1991, p. 364-370). By merging subject matter and methodological procedure in the study of egocentric speech, Vygotsky was able to escape the obstacles posed by the covert, subjective nature of inner speech and at the same time remain consistent with the overall framework of his sociohistorical approach to mental development.

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“What?”
“It’s not what you will get out of the books that is so enriching — it is what the books will get out of you that will ultimately change your life. You see, John, books do not actually teach you anything new.”

“Really?”
“Really. Books simply help you to see what is already within your self. That’s what enlightenment is all about. After all my journeying and exploring I found that I have actually come full circle back to the point from which I started as a young boy. But now I know myself and all that I am and can be.

“So the Ritual of Abundant Knowledge is all about reading and exploring the wealth of information out there?”
“Partly. For now, read thirty minutes a day. The rest will come
naturally,” Julian said with a hint of mystery.

“Okay, what’s the Fifth Ritual of Radiant Living?”
“It is the Ritual of Personal Reflection. The sages were firm believers in the power of inner contemplation. By taking the time to get to know yourself, you will connect to a dimension of your being that you never knew you had.”

“Sounds pretty deep.”
“It’s actually a very practical concept. You see, we all have many sleeping talents inside of us. By taking the time to get to know them, we kindle them. However, silent contemplation will deliver even more than this. This practice will make you stronger, more at ease with yourself and wiser. It is a very rewarding use of your mind.”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

Throughout his professional career, Vygotsky was as much concerned with the object as with the method of his research: “The search for method becomes one of the most important problems of the entire enterprise of understanding the uniquely human forms of psychological activity” (1978, p. 65, italics used in original). For Vygotsky, the optimal methodological route to inner speech was through analysis of its genetic predecessor: egocentric speech. Vygotsky rested his defense of egocentric speech as “the key to the study of inner speech” (1986, p. 226) on two grounds: (1) inner speech is inaccessible to direct methods of observation and (2) higher mental processes must be studied developmentally. Because egocentric speech is directly observable and genetically linked to inner speech, egocentric speech was thus, for Vygotsky, the most
appropriate approach to the investigation of inner speech.

The study of inner speech through egocentric speech has, according to Vygotsky (1986), two advantages. First, because egocentric speech is vocalized and audible, it is accessible to observation and experimentation. “To study an internal process, it is necessary to externalize it experimentally, by connecting it with some outer activity; only then is objective functional analysis possible” (p. 227). The second advantage is that, as a transitional phase, egocentric speech shows the process of transformation that gives way to inner speech. By observing how certain characteristics of egocentric speech become strengthened while others tend to disappear, it is possible to predict “which traits are essential to inner speech and which are only temporary” (p. 227) and thus to determine the ultimate nature of inner speech. For example, from his observations, Vygotsky inferred that as egocentric speech goes underground at around school age, it loses vocalization-a transitory feature-but retains predicativity (abbreviatedness, ellipsis)—a regular trait of inner speech (p. 229).

Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of the method of experimentation as applied to the study of higher psychological functions stems from the assumption that mental development, like the general development of the species, must be studied as a historical process. Experimentation, in Vygotsky’s view, entails explanation of “actual causal-dynamic relations” (p. 62) and not merely description of phenomena at a point in time. Traditional experimentation and introspectionism, as practiced in his times, did not allow for the observation of the genesis of mental functions-that is, their origin and development over time (pp. 59-60). The goal of Vygotsky’s experimentaldevelopmental (p. 61) method is to document process, whether in ontogenesis (development over a lifetime) or in microgenesis (the short-term formation or on-line changes of psychological functions) (see Wertsch, 1985b). Whereas Vygotsky applied ontogenetic principles to his examination of inner speech development throughout childhood, he followed a microgenetic approach in his account of the externalization of thought from inner to public speech (Wertsch, 1985b, p. 55).

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“Think and Grow Rich!” I exclaimed. “But I thought you left all of that behind you after your heart attack. I’m really sick and tired of all the ‘make-money-fast manuals’ that are being peddled out there by snake-oil salesmen preying on the weak.”

“Easy, big fella! I couldn’t agree with you more,” offered Julian with all the warmth and patience of a wise, loving grandfather. “I too want to restore the character ethic to our society. That little book is not about making a lot of money, it is about making a lot of life. I will be the first to tell you that there is a huge difference between well-being and being well off. I’ve lived it and know the pain of a money-driven life. Think and Grow Rich is about abundance, including spiritual abundance, and how to attract all that is good into your life. You might do well to read it. But I will not press the point.”

“Sorry Julian, I didn’t mean to sound like an aggressive litigator,” I offered apologetically. “I guess my temper gets the better of me sometimes. One more thing I need to improve. I really am grateful for all that you are sharing with me.”

“No problem, water under the bridge. My point simply is read and keep reading. Do you want to know something else interesting?”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

The Challenge of Studying Covert Verbal Activity
This chapter deals with the problem of “method” in researching inner speech. As Vygotsky put it, “the area of inner speech is one of the most difficult to investigate” (1986, p. 226). Because inner speech is covert language activity, it has remained mostly inaccessible to direct methods of observation. Vygotsky himself opted for the “genetic method,” an indirect though objective approach that focuses on the analysis of private speech, the transitional phase mediating the internalization of social speech as inner speech. The chapter reviews Vygotsky’s rationale for the methodology of private speech research and subsequent efforts to extend Vygotsky’s proposals in this respect. Alternative methods for studying inner speech are then examined. One of these is collecting data from verbal reports. Although some aspects of inner speech are not amenable to metaconscious analysis, subjects’ verbalizations on inner speech have been elicited through questionnaires, diaries, interviews, thinking aloud, and autobiographical narratives. Some additional verbal report techniques, not so widely used but worth considering for their relative merits, are Q-methodology, cued recall,
and thought-sampling. Laboratory tools and techniques employed in researching inner speech are also explored, among these the psychophysiological measurement of covert verbal responses, for example, through speech interference and electromyography, and
the more recent brain scanning procedures, effective in producing powerful images of inner speech in vivo.

The purpose of this chapter is to orient researchers interested in taking up the challenge of pursuing the study of inner speech on the scope of methodologies available, on how they have been used in the past, and on the possibilities they offer for future research. Each method is appraised for its advantages and limitations as well as for its potential uses in the study of inner speech. The chapter ends with a call for a multimodal, non-reductionist, and collective approach to the problem of method.

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge