Eight Dollar Blog

“Really?”
“Yes. A poor diet has a pronounced effect on your life. It drains your mental and physical energy. It affects your moods and it hampers the clarity of your mind. Yogi Raman put it this way: ‘As you nourish your body, so you nourish your mind.’”

“I assume then that you changed your diet?”
“Radically. And it made an amazing difference in the way I felt and looked. I always thought that I was so run down because of the stresses and strains of my work and because the wrinkled fingers of old age were reaching out for me. In Sivana, I learned that much of my lethargy was due to the low-octane fuel I was pumping into my body.”

“What did the Sages of Sivana eat to stay so youthful and bright?”
“Live foods,” came the efficient reply.
“Huh?”
“Live foods are the answer. Live foods are foods that are not dead.”

“C’mon, Julian. What are live foods?” I asked impatiently.
“Basically, live foods are those which are created through the
natural interaction of the sun, air, soil and water. What I’m talking
about here is a vegetarian diet. Fill your plate with fresh vegetables, fruits and grains and you might just live forever.”
“Is that possible?”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

Rodriguez-Fornells, Rotte, Heinze, Nosselt, and Munte (2002) sought to investigate how bilingual subjects are able to handle two languages in the brain without interfering with each other. Using behavioral, electrophysiological, and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) measures, the authors examined word processing in a group of bilingual Catalan-Spanish subjects who had acquired both languages early in life and in a group of monolingual Spanish subjects. Words in both languages and pseudo words were presented on a computer monitor. Subjects were asked to press a
button for only the words of the language being tested, whereas no response was to be given to the other language or pseudo words. Results indicated that the meanings of the words in the experimental irrelevant language were not accessed and that these words were rejected at an early stage before semantic analysis. The study thus showed that bilinguals can effectively avoid interference between languages and turn off semantic analysis of the language not being processed. The study also evidenced greater activation among the bilingual subjects of the planum temporale, an area of the brain that has been linked to phonological processing. The authors hypothesize that bilinguals can block access to the irrelevant language through the use of an indirect access route to the lexicon; in other words, when processing the relevant language, bilinguals do not go directly from orthography to lexical access but indirectly from orthography through phonological representation to lexical access. According to the researchers, it is possible that the more convoluted pathway to meaning through phonology in the relevant language prevents semantic interference from the irrelevant language.

Kim, Relkin, Lee, and Hirsch (1997) applied fMRI to determine the spatial allocation of Lls and L2s in the cerebral cortex. In the study, bilingual subjects with a variety of L1-L2 combinations performed silent (internal speech) expressive tasks with similar semantic content across languages. In different sessions alternating LI or
L2, the subjects were asked to imagine sentences describing events that had occurred the previous day. The researchers found that, within the frontal-lobe region known as Broca’s area, L2s learned in adulthood and Lls were located in separate regions, whereas L2s learned in infancy shared common frontal areas with Lls. In the temporal-lobe region known as Wernicke’s area, however, little or no separation of activity was found for L2s and Lls regardless of age of L2 acquisition. The study suggests that, at least for language functions located in Broca’s area, late L2 acquisition does result in the anatomical separation of LI and L2.

Two investigations have confirmed the presence of shared cortical regions for languages learned in infancy. In a word comprehension study, Chee, et al. (1999) found through fMRI that proficient Mandarin-English bilinguals exposed to both languages early in life used common neuroanatomical areas (specifically in the prefrontal, temporal, and superior parietal regions and in the anterior supplementary motor area) for both languages. Similarly, a recent study by Chee, Soon, and Lee (2003),which investigated through fMRI the effects of word repetition within and across languages among English-Chinese bilinguals who had been exposed to the L2
before the age of 4, found that common semantic neuronal networks were activated for both languages. The authors speculate, however, that some of the network components could be language specific.

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“Okay so where do I start?”
“It’s actually pretty easy. Two or three times a day take a minute or two to think about breathing more deeply and effectively.”

“How do I know if I’m breathing effectively?”
“Well, your belly should move out slightly. This indicates that you are breathing from the abdomen, which is good. A trick that Yogi Raman taught me was to cup my hands over my stomach. If they moved out as I inhaled, my breathing technique was proper.”

“Very interesting.”
“If you like that, then you will love the Third Ritual of Radiant Living,” said Julian.

“Which is?”
“The Ritual of Live Nourishment. In my days as a litigator, I lived off of a steady diet of steaks, fries and other types of junk food. Sure I ate at the finest restaurants in the country, but I still filled my body with junk. I didn’t know it at the time, but this was one of the main sources of my discontent.”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

Growing evidence of inner speech processes in the L2 is coming forth from research involving the application of neuroimaging techniques. As in the LI field, L2 neuroimaging has the potential for identifying brain areas implicated in L2 processing and for revealing patterns of activation in L2 neurolinguistic activity. The field of L2 neuroimaging research is thus instrumental in confirming or disconfirming long-held
hypotheses about the organization of languages in the brain and in unraveling the complex architecture and functioning of the bilingual or multilingual mind.

Two areas of neuroimaging research appear to be highly relevant to the topic of this book, inner speech in the L2. One is the investigation of the spatial allocation of language functions in the bilingual brain and another one is the question of how variables such as age of acquisition and L2 proficiency affect the distribution of L1 and L2s in the brain.

A study by Price, Green, and von Studnitz (1999), for example, revealed different patterns of activation for different L1-L2 tasks, namely, translation and switching. Using PET, the researchers uncovered different neural systems underlying translation and language switching among proficient German-English adult bilinguals, suggesting at least partially independent mechanisms. Increased activity in the anterior cingulate and subcortical structures was found for translation, but not switching. Overall, the study indicated that switching and translation between languages involve different
components of the language system: phonological recoding in the case of translation and semantics and articulation in the case of switching.

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“What does breathing fresh air have to do with anything?”
“I’ll answer your question with one of Yogi Raman’s favorite sayings, ‘To breathe properly is to live properly.’”

“Breathing is that important?” I asked in surprise.
“Quite early on in Sivana, the sages taught me that the fastest way to double or even triple the amount of energy I had was to learn the art of effective breathing.”

“But don’t we all know how to breathe, even a newborn baby?”
“Not really, John. While most of us know how to breathe to survive, we have never learned how to breathe to thrive. Most of us breathe far too shallowly and in so doing, we fail to take in enough oxygen to run the body at an optimal level.”

“Sounds like proper breathing involves a lot of science.”
“It does. And the sages treated it that way. Their philosophy was simple: take in more oxygen through efficient breathing and you liberate your energy reserves along with your natural state of vitality.”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

Based on the above categorization, Lantolf found a tendency for language play to decrease with proficiency. Despite this tendency, the results of the study unmistakably show that L2 students do engage in language play, sometimes covertly within their own heads and sometimes more overtly, as their inner speech resurfaces in the form of audible private speech or as they are in the process of internalizing the social speech they are exposed to. Why do students do this? According to Lantolf, “language play is the activity of regaining lost equilibrium” (p. 25), a situation that arises when L2
learners are confronted with some feature of the L2 that does not match their own knowledge of the L2. To overcome this conflict, learners will resort to language play. In a conversation, for example, a learner may notice something that does not agree with his acquired system. Because language play while conversing would be out of the question, the learner may later reflect on this discrepancy and make the necessary adjustments in his own linguistic system through private language play. As to why advanced learners presumably play less with the L2, Lantolf hypothesizes:

As learners become more advanced, the potential conflict between their internal system and external models declines, thereby reducing the chances of the learner being thrown into a state of disequilibrium. Consequently, the need for advanced learners to engage in language play, as we have already seen, is greatly diminished or eliminated altogether, (p. 26)

While granting that language learning is far too complex a process to be reduced to one single mechanism, Lantolf supports the idea that language play is an essential condition of language learning: “Without language play learning is unlikely to happen” (p. 19).

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“No, not really.”
“It’s true. At least five of those hours should be invested in some form of physical activity. The Sages of Sivana practiced the ancient discipline of yoga to awaken their physical potential and live a strong, dynamic existence. It was an extraordinary sight to see these marvellous physical specimens who had managed to age-proof their lives standing on their heads in the center of their village!”

“Have you tried yoga, Julian? Jenny started practicing it last summer and says it has added five years to her life.”
“There is no one strategy that will magically transform your life, John, let me be the first to say this. Lasting and profound change comes through the continued application of a number of the methods I have shared with you. But yoga is an extremely effective way to unlock your reserves of vitality. I do my yoga every morning and it is one of the best things that I do for myself. It not only rejuvenates my body, it completely focuses my mind. It has even unblocked my creativity. It is a terrific discipline.”

“Did the sages do anything else to care for their bodies?”
“Yogi Raman and his brothers and sisters also believed that vigorous walking in natural surroundings, whether high on the mountain paths or deep in the lush forests, worked wonders for relieving fatigue and restoring the body to its natural state of vibrancy. When the weather was too harsh to walk, they would exercise within the security of their huts. They might miss a meal but they would never miss their daily round of exercise.”

“What did they have in their huts? NordicTrack machines?” I
quipped.
“Not quite. Sometimes they would practice yoga postures. Other times I would catch a glimpse of them doing a set or two of one-handed push-ups. I really think it didn’t matter too much to them what they did, so long as they moved their bodies and got the fresh air of their breath-taking surroundings flowing through their lungs.”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

Succinctly, these are the findings of Guerrero’s research, which are offered here in summarized form to situate her studies in perspective with other studies on inner speech in the L2. Chapter 5 will provide an in-depth description of Guerrero’s two studies on inner speech and mental rehearsal as well as a detailed account of the author’s later research on L2 inner speech based on learners’ diaries.

Mental Rehearsal as Language Play
Although the concept of language play is normally associated with audible language production and has been related particularly to children’s discourse (Weir, 1962; Kuczaj, 1983; Cook, 2000; Broner & Tarone, 2001), at least one researcher (Lantolf, 1997) has suggested the possibility that language play, as it occurs among adult L2 learners, may also take place as a form of non-audible, covert, private speech. It has been noticed that Lantolf s concept of L2 language play stresses the rehearsal function rather than the ludic (fun) function of language play (Broner & Tarone, 2001).
Actually, Lantolf s language play phenomenon is a mixture of what has been identified in the literature as the Din, subvocal rehearsal, mental rehearsal, and self-talk (pp. 8-9). Some instances of language play included in his research instrument are talking to
oneself in the L2, silently repeating L2 phrases to oneself, making up L2 sentences or words, silently practicing the L2, imitating L2 sounds, and hearing the L2 in the head. Lantolf s theoretical rationale for the occurrence of language play among L2 learners
draws from Vygotsky’s ZPD concept and MacWhinney’s (1985) dialectic competition model of language learning.

The questionnaire used in Lantolf s study, modeled on Bedford’s (1985) instrument testing the Din, asked students to identify whether they played with the languages they were learning (Spanish or English). The participants were 156 college students, some taking first and second year classes of Spanish as an FL (SFL), some enrolled in advanced third and fourth year SFL classes, and others enrolled in advanced ESL classes. Although placement procedures and program requirements differed between the SFL and ESL students, making proficiency comparisons difficult, Lantolf estimated
that the ESL students’ level of proficiency in English was higher than that of the SFL group in Spanish and therefore took his sample to represent three levels of proficiency: SFL elementary, SFL advanced, and (more advanced) ESL.

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“Why?”
“Because then it becomes integrated into your routine as a ritual. By practicing it at the same time every day, a daily dose of silence will soon become a habit that you will never neglect. And positive life habits inevitably guide you to your destiny.”

“Anything else?”
“Yes. If at all possible, commune with nature daily. A quick walk through the woods or even a few minutes spent cultivating your tomato garden in the backyard will reconnect you to the wellspring of calm that may now be dormant within you. Being with nature also allows you to tune in to the infinite wisdom of your highest self. This self-knowledge will move you into the uncharted dimensions of your personal power. Never forget this,” advised Julian, his voice rising with passion.

“Has this ritual worked well for you, Julian?”
“Absolutely. I rise with the sun and the first thing I do is head off to my secret sanctuary. There I explore the Heart of the Rose for as long as need be. Some days I spend hours in quiet contemplation. On other days I spend only ten minutes. The result is more or less the same: a deep sense of inner harmony and an abundance of physical energy. Which brings me to the second ritual. This is the Ritual of Physicality.”

“Sounds interesting. What’s it about?”
“It’s about the power of physical care.”
“Huh?”
“It’s simple. The Ritual of Physicality is based on the principle that says as you care for the body so you care for the mind. As you prepare your body, so you prepare your mind. As you train your body, so you train your mind. Take some time every single day to
nourish the temple of your body through vigorous exercise. Get your blood circulating and your body moving. Did you know that there are 168 hours in a week?”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

In 1986, Parr and Krashen published the results of two studies testing Krashen’s Din Hypothesis. The first study tested the prediction that the Din is a widespread phenomenon. The data obtained from 150 high school students of Spanish and 216 college students of Spanish confirmed the prediction: 78% of the high school students and 69% of the college students answered affirmatively the question “Have you experienced the ‘Din in the Head’?” after reading Barber’s (1980) description of the phenomenon. The second study, however, supported the claim that advanced
performers do not experience involuntary rehearsal. In this study, the data came from a group of 28 “advanced graduate students and faculty in foreign language education who had acquired their second language as adults” (p. 276). Only 10% percent (3 subjects) of these speakers answered Yes to whether they had experienced the Din. There are a few problems with these data, however. Although the authors claim these were “advanced performers of the second language” (p. 276), the proficiency level of the participants in either study was not measured in any systematic way. Moreover, the
“advanced performers” were interviewed orally rather than surveyed through a questionnaire, as was done in the first study. Krashen explained the discrepancy between these results and Bedford’s (1985) and Guerrero’s (1987) saying that maybe the subjects in his study “were even more advanced, professors and teachers of the
language” (personal communication, March 14, 1988).

In summation, studies on the Din suggest that it is a common and widespread occurrence among L2 and FL learners, both children and adults, and that it can arise spontaneously or be triggered deliberately by the learner. Sounds, words, phrases, and sentences of the L2 may suddenly pop out and ring insistently in the student’s head, or may be deliberately retrieved, repeated, and analyzed. Though Krashen predicted that the Din would occur as a result of comprehensible input, the Din has also been documented as an internal mechanism to cope with language that is not fully understood. There are reports of learners experiencing the Din after listening, talking, or even reading in the L2. On the question of whether the Din disappears with proficiency, there is contradictory evidence. This may possibly be an effect of the methodology used in the various studies testing the Din. A close scrutiny of the sampling procedures reveals great differences in the surveyed populations and in the way linguistic ability was determined. These variations render comparison among proficiency levels problematic. The study by Guerrero (1999) described below aimed at clarifying these discrepancies and elucidating the question of whether mental
rehearsal of the L2 wanes or disappears with proficiency.

Mental Rehearsal and Inner Speech Development
The role of mental rehearsal in the development of inner speech in the L2 was explicitly pursued in a wide-ranging investigation conducted by Guerrero (1990/1991, 1994,1999). In two separate studies based on questionnaires and interviews, Guerrero investigated the nature-in terms of form and functions-of inner speech as it manifested itself during mental rehearsal of the L2. The first study (Guerrero 1990/1991, 1994) focused on learners at three levels of ESL proficiency-low, intermediate, and high. The second study (Guerrero, 1999) replicated the first study with a population of
advanced ESL learners. Both studies were able to confirm the occurrence of L2 inner speech as various forms of rehearsal among the participants. The studies also found a positive correlation between inner speech and proficiency; in other words, as the proficiency level increased, so did the frequency of L2 inner speech. Several phonological, lexical, syntactic, and semantic characteristics of L2 inner speech were identified through these studies as well as various different functions of inner speech. It was found, for example, that, as students were mentally rehearsing in the L2, their
inner speech performed a very important mnemonic role of recalling and fixing words in memory. Their inner speech was also used for instructional, preparatory, and affective purposes, among others. In addition, the studies revealed that, though generally the occurrence of inner speech increased with proficiency, certain specific functions decreased. Very advanced learners, for example, reported engaging in less rehearsal to store words in memory, to imitate pronunciation, and to prepare for future production than lower proficiency learners.44 The results suggest, however, that L2 inner speech can function, in advanced levels of proficiency, as a powerful and efficient tool for thought. On the other hand, the studies also suggest that at low levels of L2 proficiency, mental rehearsal, rather than representing the activation of fully fledged L2 inner speech, is a mechanism operating towards L2 internalization and the development of L2 inner speech.

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge