Eight Dollar Blog

This passage gathers, in a nutshell, Sokolov’s view of the essential features and functions of inner speech as well as summarizes his social theoretic perspective of the phenomenon. Highlighted in the above is the silent, covert, fragmentary, and selfdirected character of inner speech; its involvement in various kinds of mental operations (planning, memory, perception, reasoning, etc.); its social derivativeness and thus ontogenetically secondary nature; and its crucial role as an instrument of thought. Sokolov’s main task was to obtain empirical evidence for these assumptions.

One of the greatest achievements of Sokolov’s (1972) research is that it managed to render tenuous and fugitive inner speech almost palpable. By measuring-and interfering with-activity of the speech muscles during silent verbal tasks, Sokolov was able to document and analyze the phenomenon of inner speech and make inferences
about its structure and functions. From a phonological point of view, Sokolov found inner speech to be inaudible to others but sonorous to the self. Although Sokolov agreed with the usual characterization of inner speech as soundless, he warned that the term is “justified only from the point of view of an outsider; for the thinker himself, however, inner speech remains linked to auditory speech stimuli even in the case of maximal inhibition of speech movements” (p. 55). From a structural point of view, Sokolov noticed two forms of inner speech: an abbreviated, condensed version that he regarded as thinking in allusions to words and an expanded, elaborated form that he referred to as inner talking or verbal reasoning (p. 121). Both forms are always interacting and are equally important: “While engaged in thought, we constantly pass from thinking-reasoning to thinking in allusions to words” (p. 121).

In Sokolov’s (1972) view, when mental habits become fully automatized, such as in reading or solving mathematical problems, the verbal reasoning that supports these operations is highly reduced and inner speech is in its most abbreviated form. This
reduction in inner speech implies not only absence of vocalization but also a compression and rearrangement of the verbal structure resulting in an internal language of “semantic complexes” (p. 71), that is, “reduced verbal statements sometimes combined with graphic images” (p. 71). One of the functions of these verbal semantic complexes, which Sokolov explored through experiments involving translation of FL texts (to be discussed in Chapter 3), is to single out “semantic points of reference, or key words,” (p. 78) which help generalize information during reading or listening. Sokolov referred to this function of inner speech as “semantic generalization” (p. 6).

Sokolov’s (1972) speech interference experiments clearly demonstrated that inhibition of inner speech during the realization of verbal tasks has detrimental effects not only on understanding but also on remembering. One of his experiments, for example, showed that it is very difficult to remember what a speaker says on the radio
if one tries to listen to the speaker and simultaneously count to oneself (one, two, three, etc.). In this case, artificially suppressing the inward repetition of the speech heard results in “instantaneous amnesia” (p. 95). This type of experiment led Sokolov to stress the extreme importance of speech movements, or inward repetition, in
memorization. Further tests, however, indicated that when the verbal act is sufficiently automatized, speech interference does not lead to forgetting. In these cases, automatization makes it possible to engage in maximally reduced inner speech, or extremely abbreviated inward repetition, and thus the mental act is not impaired. Sokolov called this function of inner speech “semantic memorization” (p. 6).

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“But doing these exercises at the office, Julian?” I responded.
“My partners think I’m strange enough as it is.”
“Yogi Raman and all the kind sages with whom he lived, often used a saying that had been passed down to them through the generations. It is my privilege to pass it on to you, on what has become an important evening for both of us, if I may say so. The words are as follows: ‘There is nothing noble about being superior to some other person. True nobility lies in being superior to your former self.’ All I’m really getting at is that if you want to improve your life and live with all that you deserve you must run your own race. It doesn’t matter what other people say about you. What is important is what you say to yourself. Do not be concerned with the judgment of others as long as you know what you are doing is right. You can do whatever you want to do as long as it is correct according to your conscience and your heart. Never be ashamed of doing that which is right; decide on what you think is good and then stick to it. And for God’s sake, never get into the petty habit of measuring your self-worth against other people’s net worth. As Yogi Raman preached: ‘Every second you spend thinking about someone else’s dreams you take time away from your own.’”

It was now seven minutes past midnight. Remarkably, I didn’t feel the least bit tired. When I shared this with Julian he smiled once again. “You have learned yet another principle for enlightened living. For the most part, fatigue is a creation of the mind. Fatigue dominates the lives of those who are living without direction and dreams. Let me give you an example. Have you ever had an afternoon at the office where you were reading your dry case reports and your mind started to wander and you started to feel sleepy?”

“From time to time,” I answered, not wishing to reveal the fact that this was my modus operandi. “Sure, most of us feel drowsy at work on a regular basis.”

“Yet, if a friend calls on the phone to ask you if you want to go out to the ball game that night or asks you for advice on his golf game, I have no doubt that you would spring to life. Every trace of your fatigue would vanish. Is that a fair assessment?”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

• Assets. Resources that a company has legal control of
• Current assets. Cash and other assets likely to be converted to cash or consumed within a year; usually includes the following five components

1. Cash and cash equivalents. The latter are marketable and highly liquid securities with short-term maturities (say, no more than three months). May include CDs and money market funds Continue reading »
   

A. A. Leontiev believed that Chomskyan, transformational approaches to psycholinguistic data on speech production would profit from reinterpretation based on the inclusion of a Vygotskyan inner speech stage (Akhutina, 1978, p. 22). Leontiev (1981) proposed dividing the verbal act, that is, “the act of generating a verbal utterance in the process of setting and solving a particular problem,” (p. 105), in two main parts: a planning (or programming) stage and a post-programming stage (see Figure 2-3). In this view, the planning stage consists of three moments: the first is a need or problematic situation and the motivation to solve it, the second is the
generation of a speech intention in response to the motive, and the third is the internal programming of the utterance through a code of subjective meanings. This is the stage when the speech intention is given subjective shape through the predicative and sense structure of inner speech. Once the inner program has been formulated there is an important transformation of the internal utterance into the external utterance through mediation of an objective linguistic code. At this post-programming stage, personal, subjective meanings are translated into objective meanings with the aid of external words, and the grammar of thought is transformed into the grammar of external speech. It is at the post-programming stage that an additional translating stage would be introduced in FL production. (See Akhutina, 1978, p. 23, for a similar diagram of Leontiev’s six-step speech production schema).

The Psychophysiology of Inner Speech: Sokolov ’s View
The significance of A. N. Sokolov within the study of inner speech is attested by the fact that, to this day, his book Inner Speech and Thought (1972) remains the only single-authored book exclusively dedicated to the subject. In his exhaustive treatise on inner speech, Sokolov not only traced the historical development of the concept of
inner speech and provided a thorough overview of research on inner speech but also presented the findings of an impressive series of experiments on inner speech conducted by himself and colleagues. Whereas theoretically Sokolov’s work was grounded on sociocultural principles of the Vygotskyan school, methodologically his approach was mostly psychophysiological. In other words, his research explored the physiological correlates of the psychological study of inner speech primarily by means of electromyographic, electroencephalographic, and speech interference techniques.
(A detailed discussion of these techniques is offered in Chapter 4.)

Sokolov’s definition of inner speech, from the psychological point of view, is one of the most elegant and transparent in the sociocultural theory literature. Because of its clarity and force and its relevance to the study of inner speech from an L2 perspective (as will be seen in further chapters), it is worth quoting here at length:

In psychology, the term “inner speech” usually signifies soundless mental speech, arising at the instant we think about something, plan or solve problems in our mind, recall books read or conversations heard, read and write silently. In all such instances, we think and
remember with the aid of words which we articulate to ourselves. Inner speech is nothing but speech to oneself, or concealed verbalization, which is instrumental in the logical processing of sensory data, in their realization and comprehension within a definite system of concepts and judgments. The elements of inner speech are found in all our conscious perceptions, actions, and emotional experiences, where they manifest themselves as verbal sets, instructions to oneself, or as verbal interpretation of sensations and perceptions. This renders inner speech a rather important and universal mechanism in human consciousness and psychic activity Despite its specificity (soundlessness and fragmentariness), inner
speech, far from being an independent entity is a secondary phenomenon derived from external speech-auditory perception of the speech of other persons and active mastery of all the forms of the spoken and written word. Seen from this viewpoint, inner speech
represents a psychological transformation of external speech, its “internal projection,” arising at first as a repetition (echo) of the speech being uttered and heard, but becoming later its increasingly abbreviated reproduction in the form of verbal designs, schemes, and
semantic complexes operating not unlike “quanta” of thought. From these psychological descriptions, inner speech emerges as a rather intricate phenomenon, where thought and language are bound in a single, indissoluble complex acting as the speech mechanism of
thinking, (p. 1)

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“Do I have to find a special lake to apply the Secret of the Lake?” I asked innocently. “No. The Secret of the Lake was simply the sages’ name for the ageless technique of using positive images to influence the mind. You can practice this method in your own living room or
even at the office if you really want to. Shut your door, hold all calls
and close your eyes. Then take a few deep breaths. You will notice
that after two or three minutes you will start to feel relaxed. Next,
visualize mental pictures of all that you want to be, to have and to
attain in your life. If you want to be the world’s best father, envision yourself laughing and playing with your kids, responding to their questions with an open heart. Picture yourself acting gracefully and lovingly in a tense situation. Mentally rehearse the way you will govern your actions when a similar scene unfolds on the canvas of reality.

“The magic of visualization can be applied to so many situations. You can use it to be more effective in court, to enhance your relationships and to develop yourself spiritually. Consistent use of this method will also bring you financial rewards along with an abundance of material gain, if this is important to you. Understand once and for all that your mind has magnetic power to attract all that you desire into your life. If there is a lack in your life it is because there is a lack in your thoughts. Hold wonderful pictures in your mind’s eye. Even one negative image is poisonous to your mindset. Once you start to experience the joy this ancient technique brings, you will realize the infinite potential of your mind and begin to liberate the storehouse of ability and energy that currently sleeps within you.”

It was as if Julian was speaking a foreign tongue. I had never heard anyone speak of the magnetic power of the mind to attract spiritual and material abundance. Nor had I ever heard anyone speak of the power of imaging and its profound effects on every aspect of one’s world. Yet, deep inside I had faith in what Julian was saying. This was a man whose judgment and intellectual abilities were impeccable. This was a man who was internationally respected for his legal acumen. This was a man who had walked down the path I was now journeying along. Julian had found something on his odyssey to the East, that much was clear. Looking at his physical vitality, his obvious tranquility, seeing his transformation confirmed that I would be wise to listen to his advice.

The more I thought about what I was hearing the more sense it made. Surely the mind must have a great deal more potential than most of us are currently using. How else could mothers lift otherwise immovable cars to save their crying infants who had fallen underneath? How else could martial artists break stacks of bricks with one fell swoop of their hands? How else could the yogis of the East slow down their heartbeats at will or endure tremendous pain without blinking an eye? Maybe the real problem was within me and my lack of belief in the gifts that every being possesses. Perhaps this evening sitting alongside a former millionaire-lawyer turned monk of the Himalayas was a sort of wake-up call for me to start making the most of my life.

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

Not understanding the workings of financial markets, such as the stock market, is comparable to not understanding financial terms, but the potential for getting into trouble is much greater. A lack of knowledge when you invest in the stock market can get you financially wiped out. Here are two tips for obtaining the knowledge needed to be a successful investor: Continue reading »

Luria (1981) also found that the cerebral mechanisms governing the regulative function of speech are not the same as those involved in speech perception and production. For example, damage to Wernicke’s section (left temporal lobe), which is associated with speech perception, causes inability to distinguish phonemes. Additionally, lesions in the post-central zones of the speech cortex, which are responsible for articulatory processes, lead to motor aphasia. Luria’s studies, however, showed that inner speech in these cases “remains relatively intact and that a patient whose perception of speech and phonemes is badly affected (in other words, a patient
suffering from sensory or motor aphasia) may continue to regulate actions that are either self-initiated or are assigned by others” (pp. 108-109). On the basis of his research, Luria concluded that the neural basis for the regulative function of inner speech is localized in the frontal lobes, especially in the left hemisphere (p. 109). Lesions in this area may not affect simple, habitual verbal activity, such as greeting or answering routinely, but they would severely impair complex, voluntary speech production requiring inner speech programming.

Luria’s legacy to the construct of inner speech cannot be overemphasized. Following general Vygotskyan principles about the social origins of intellectual functioning, Luria was able, through neuropsychological investigation and the application of activity theory, to discover the brain materiality of inner speech. Through his research, he not only solidified notions about the social basis of inner
speech but also advanced important hypotheses about the role of inner speech in speech production and regulative behavior. In particular, his approach to inner speech as mental activity with real correlates in brain mechanisms allowed him to show the functionality of inner speech and how utterly disruptive to normal mental life any
tampering with inner speech activity could be.

Inner Speech in the Planning of Speech Production: A. A. Leontiev’s View An important contribution to an understanding of the role of inner speech in the production of speech acts was offered by psycholinguist A. A. Leontiev (1981, see also, Akhutina, 1978). Particularly interesting is Leontiev’s specification of inner speech mechanisms in the planning of FL utterances. A brief discussion of his general view of stages of speech production is presented here to set the basis for a more elaborate treatment of his ideas regarding the L1-L2 connection in Chapter 3.

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge

“What was the Secret of the Lake?” I asked impatiently.
Julian explained that the sages would look into the waters of the still lake and envision their dreams becoming reality. If it was the virtue of discipline they wished to cultivate within their lives they would picture themselves getting up at dawn, performing their rigorous physical regimen without fail and spending days in silence to enhance their willpower. If it was more joy they were seeking, they would look into the lake and envision themselves laughing uncontrollably or smiling each time they met one of their brothers or sisters. If it was courage they desired, they would picture themselves acting with strength in the moment of crisis and challenge

“Yogi Raman once told me that as a boy, he lacked confidence as he was smaller than the other boys his age. While they were kind and gentle to him given their environmental influences, he grew insecure and shy. To cure this weakness, Yogi Raman would travel to this heavenly spot and use the lake as a picture screen for images of the person he hoped to be. Some days he would visualize himself as a strong leader, standing tall and speaking with a powerful, commanding voice. Other days he would see himself as he wished to be when he grew older: a wise sage filled with tremendous inner strength and character. All the virtues he wished to have in his life, he saw first on the surface of the lake.

“Within a matter of months, Yogi Raman became the person whom he mentally saw himself becoming. You see, John, the mind works through pictures. Pictures affect your self-image and your self-image affects the way you feel, act and achieve. If your selfimage tells you that you are too young to be a successful lawyer or too old to change your habits for the better, you never will achieve these goals. If your self-image tells you that lives rich with purpose, excellent health and happiness are only for people from backgrounds other than your own, this prophecy will ultimately become your reality.

“But when you run inspiring, imaginative pictures through the movie screen of your mind, wonderful things start to happen in your life. Einstein said that ‘imagination is more important than knowledge.’ You must spend some time every day, even if it is just a few minutes, in the practice of creative envisioning. See yourself as you want to be, whether this means serving as a great judge, a great father or a great citizen of your community.”

Taken From:THE MONK WHO SOLD HIS FERRARI

This book is designed to explain the internal processes of the stock market that are relevant to you the investor. It will not overwhelm you with extraneous information but instead will give you the essential information you need to know to get started as an investor. Over the years I have learned such informational tidbits regarding the workings of the stock market as how stocks are coded into various classes, how trades are settled, and how to recognize the various functions of the floor traders from the colors of their coats. All of this is certainly interesting and often fun information; however, the color of a floor trader’s coat will in no way help you make intelligent investment decisions. Continue reading »

Luria’s description of whispered speech as fragmentary and abbreviated and not simply as speech-in-a-low-voice (p. 107) provides a clue that his conception of whispering was not too far apart from Vygotsky’s notion of egocentric speech. Luria coincided with Vygotsky in pointing out the tendency for speech to become predicative as it is internalized (Luria, 1981, p. 107). Like Vygotsky, Luria recognized the predominance of the psychological predicate in inner speech structure. Actually, Luria used the terms “theme” and “rheme” to refer respectively to the nominative and predicative functions of speech, but in essence he was in complete agreement with Vygotsky on the fact that inner speech is organized around what is new and not around what is already known (the psychological subject). In line with Vygotsky, too, Luria (1981) believed that it is the predicative nature of inner speech-the preservation of the plan of action in regulative speech-that makes it possible to transform inner speech into expanded speech.

For example, if I am going to a lecture to speak about the mechanism of inner speech, I carry only an abbreviated outline of the lecture in my mind. Items such as ‘inner speech,” “egocentrism,” and “predicativity”-items that do not name the theme but indicate what I want to say about it (in other words, predicative items)-are precisely what enable me to go on to produce the external structure. Accordingly, on the basis of inner speech, the lecturer
can expand a scant outline into an entire lecture, (pp. 107-108)

As mentioned, another novel contribution to the study of inner speech made by Luria was his identification of the brain areas and mechanisms involved in inner speech activity. Again, his view of thinking and speech as activity, and not as general faculties of the mind, allowed him to focus on the cerebral components and the various phases involved in the processes of speech production and intellectual functioning. To understand the cerebral organization of speech and cognitive activity, Luria turned to the study of speech and brain disorders. One of his most significant findings was that lesions in different parts of the brain affect different stages in the transition from thought to speech, resulting in a variety of speech disorders (1973, p. 309). For example, he found that the inability to produce spontaneous narrative speech results from damage to the brain’s frontal lobes (p. 318). Damage to this area impairs the ability to formulate an intention or plan, which is the initial point of the spontaneous verbal utterance. Non-spontaneous speech, such as echolalic responses, however, remains intact. Lesions in the “inferior postfrontal zones of the left hemisphere” (p. 319), on the other hand, cause disturbances in the transition from the general plan or
intention to a linear verbal scheme. Inner speech, with its redicative structure, plays an important role in this transition because it already provides the syntax for the general scheme of the sentence. Damage to regions supporting this transition, Luria observed, deprives subjects of the ability “to express a thought, or even to produce an elementary verbal expression” (p. 319). Luria’s experimental studies showed that what is impaired in these subjects is not the formulation of a motive or plan but the conversion of thought into sequential speech that is made possible by inner speech.

Taken From:Inner Speech – L2 hinking words in a second langunge